Toward Real-Time Ray Tracing: A Survey on Hardware Acceleration and Microarchitecture Techniques

Abstract

Ray tracing has long been considered as the next-generation technology for graphics rendering. Recently, there has been strong momentum to adopt ray tracing--based rendering techniques on consumer-level platforms due to the inability of further enhancing user experience by increasing display resolution. On the other hand, the computing workload of ray tracing is still overwhelming. A 10-fold performance gap has to be narrowed for real-time applications, even on the latest graphics processing units (GPUs). As a result, hardware acceleration techniques are critical to delivering a satisfying level performance while at the same time meeting an acceptable power budget. A large body of research on ray-tracing hardware has been proposed over the past decade. This article is aimed at providing a timely survey on hardware techniques to accelerate the ray-tracing algorithm. First, a quantitative profiling on the ray-tracing workload is presented. We then review hardware techniques for the main functional blocks in a ray-tracing pipeline. On such a basis, the ray-tracing microarchitectures for both ASIC and processors are surveyed by following a systematic taxonomy.

References

1. Timo Aila and Tero Karras. 2010. Architecture considerations for tracing incoherent rays. In Proceedings of the Conference on High Performance Graphics. 113--122
2. Timo Aila and Samuli Laine. 2009. Understanding the efficiency of ray traversal on GPUs. In Proceedings of the Conference on High Performance Graphics. 145--149.
3. Timo Aila, Tero Karras, and Samuli Laine. 2013. On quality metrics of bounding volume hierarchies. In Proceedings of the 5th High-Performance Graphics Conference. 101--107.
4. Tomas Akenine-Moller, Eric Haines, and Naty Hoffman. 2008. Real-Time Rendering. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
5. AMD. 2014. AMD Radeon™ HD 7990 Graphics Card. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://www.amd.com/en-us/products/graphics/desktop/7000/7990.
6. Arthur Appel. 1968. Some techniques for shading machine renderings of solids. In Proceedings of the April 30--May 2, 1968, Spring Joint Computer Conference. 37--45.
7. James Arvo and David Kirk. 1989. A survey of ray tracing acceleration techniques. An Introduction to Ray Tracing. 201--262.
8. Carsten Benthin. 2006. Realtime ray tracing on current CPU architectures. PhD thesis. Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany.
9. Jon Louis Bentley. 1975. Multidimensional binary search trees used for associative searching. Communications of the ACM. 18, 9, 509--517.
10. Christian Bienia, Sanjeev Kumar, Jaswinder Pal Singh, and Kai Li. 2008. The PARSEC benchmark suite: Characterization and architectural implications. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Parallel Architectures and Compilation Techniques. 72--81.
11. David Blythe. 2008. Rise of the graphics processor. In Proceeding of IEEE. 761--778.
12. Martin Burtscher, Rupesh Nasre, and Keshav Pingali. 2012. A quantitative study of irregular programs on GPUs. In IEEE International Symposium on Workload Characterization (IISWC’12). 141--151.
13. Nathan A. Carr, Jesse D. Hall, and John C. Hart. 2002. The ray engine. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH/EUROGRAPHICS Conference on Graphics Hardware. 37--46.
14. Chen-Haur Chang, Chuan-Yiu Lee, and Shao-Yi Chien. 2008. Hardware architecture design and implementation of ray-triangle intersection with bounding volume hierarchies. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing. 179--179.
15. Per H. Christensen, Julian Fong, David M. Laur, and Dana Batali. 2006. Ray tracing for the movie ‘Cars. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing. 1--6.
16. James H. Clark. 1976. Hierarchical geometric models for visible surface algorithms. In Communications of the ACM 19, 10, 547--554.
17. William J. Dally, Ujval J. Kapasi, Brucek Khailany, Jung Ho Ahn, and Abhishek Das. 2004. Stream processors: Programmability with efficiency. ACM Queue 2, 1, 52--62.
18. Tomas Davidovic, Lukas Marsalek, and Philipp Slusallek. 2011. Performance considerations when using a dedicated ray traversal engine. In Proceedings of the WSCG.
19. Y. Deng and S. Mu. 2013. A survey on GPU based electronic design automation computing. Foundation and Trends in Electronics Design Automation.
20. Andreas Dietrich, Abe Stephens, and Ingo Wald. 2007. Exploring a Boeing 777: Ray tracing large-scale CAD Data. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. 27, 6, 36--46.
21. Peter Djeu, Warren A. Hunt, Rui Wang, Ikrima Elhassan, Gordon Stoll, and William R. Mark. 2011. Razor: An architecture for dynamic multiresolution ray tracing. ACM Transactions on Graphics. 30, 5, Article 115, 115:1--115:26.
22. Kirill Dmitriev, Vlastimil Havran, and Hans-Peter Seidel. 2004. Faster ray tracing with SIMD shaft culling. Research Report MPI-I-2004-4-006. Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik, Saarbrücken, Germany.
23. Michael J. Doyle, Colin Fowler, and Michael Manzke. 2013. A hardware unit for fast SAH-optimised BVH construction. ACM Transactions on Graphics 32, 4, 139.
24. Philip Dutre, Philippe Bekaert, and Kavita Bala. 2006. Advanced Global Illumination (2nd ed). A. K. Peters/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
25. Joshua Fender and Jonathan Rose. 2003. A high-speed ray tracing engine built on a field-programmable system. In Proceedings of Field-Programmable Technology (FPT’03).
26. Michael J. Flynn. 1972. Some computer organizations and their effectiveness. IEEE Transactions on Computers 100, 9, 948--960.
27. Henry Fuchs, Zvi M. Kedem, and Bruce F. Naylor. 1980. On visible surface generation by a priori tree structures. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphic Conference 14, 3, 124--133.
28. Akira Fujimoto, Tanaka Takayuki, and Iwata Kansei. 1986. Arts: Accelerated ray-tracing system. In IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 6, 4, 16--26.
29. Kirill Garanzha, Jacopo Pantaleoni, and David McAllister. 2011. Simpler and faster HLBVH with work queues. In Proceedings of the High Performance Graphics. 59--64.
30. Andrew S. Glassner (ed.). 1989. An Introduction to Ray Tracing. Elsevier, New York, NY.
31. Jeffrey Goldsmith and John Salmon. 1987. Automatic creation of object hierarchies for ray tracing. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 7, 5, 14--20.
32. Venkatraman Govindaraju, Peter Djeu, Karthikeyan Sankaralingam, Mary Vernon, and William R. Mark. 2008. Toward a multicore architecture for real-time ray-tracing. In Proceedings of the 41st Annual IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture. 176--187.
33. Daniel Hall. 2001. The AR350: Today's ray trace rendering processor. In Proceedings of the EUROGRAPHICS/SIGGRAPH Workshop on Graphics Hardware - Hot 3D Session. 1--2.
34. Johannes Hanika and Alexander Keller. 2007. Towards hardware ray tracing using fixed-point arithmetic. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing. 119--128.
35. Michal Hapala and Vlastimil Havran. 2011. Review: Kd-tree traversal algorithms for ray tracing. Computer Graphics Forum. 30, 1, 199--213.
36. Vlastimil Havran. 2000. Heuristic ray shooting algorithms. Ph.D. Dissertation, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University, Prague.
37. Jared Heinlya, Shawn Reckera, Kevin Bensemaa, Jesse Porch, and Christiaan Gribble. 2009. Integer ray tracing. Journal of Graphics, GPU, and Game Tools 14, 4, 31--56.
38. Hans Hoffmann, Takebumi Itagaki, David Wood, and Alois Bock. 2006. Studies on the bit rate requirements for a HDTV format with 1920 × 1080 pixel resolution, progressive scanning at 50 Hz frame rate targeting large flat panel displays. IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting 52, 4, 420--434.
39. Qiming Hou, Xin Sun, Kun Zhou, Christian Lauterbach, and Dinesh Manocha. 2011. Memory-scalable GPU spatial hierarchy construction. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 17, 3, 466--474.
40. Greg Humphreys and C. Scott Ananian. 1996. Tigershark: A hardware accelerated ray-tracing engine. Senior Independent Work, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.
41. IEEE. 2008. IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754™-2008.
42. Imagination. 2014. PowerVR Ray Tracing. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://www.imgtec.com/powervr/raytracing.asp.
43. Intel. 2013. Intel® Xeon PhiTMCore Micro‐architecture. Retrieved from July 25, 2017 https://software.intel.com/en-us/articles/intel-xeon-phi-core-micro-architecture.
44. JEDEC. 2009. JEDEC Standard: GDDR5 SGRAM. Retrieved from July 25, 2017 http://www.jedec.org/standards-documents/docs/jesd212.
45. Tero Karras. 2012. Maximizing parallelism in the construction of BVHs, octrees, and k-d trees. In Proceedings of the 4th ACM SIGGRAPH/EUROGRAPHICS Conference on High-Performance Graphics. 33--37.
46. Tero Karras and Timo Aila. 2013. Fast parallel construction of high-quality bounding volume hierarchies. In Proceedings of the 5th High-Performance Graphics Conference. 89--99.
47. Sean Keely. 2014. Reduced precision for hardware ray tracing in GPUs. In Proceedings of High-Performance Graphics. 29--40.
48. Khronos. 2013a. OpenGL Shading Language 4.40 Specification.
49. Khronos. 2013b. OpenCL: The open standard for parallel programming of heterogeneous systems. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://www.khronos.org/opencl/.
50. Hong-Yun Kim, Young-Jun Kim, and Lee-Sup Kim. 2012. MRTP: Mobile ray tracing processor with reconfigurable stream multi-processors for high datapath utilization. IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits 47, 2. 518--535.
51. Hong-Yun Kim, Young-Jun Kim, Jie-Hwan Oh, and Lee-Sup Kim. 2013. A reconfigurable SIMT processor for mobile ray tracing with contention reduction in shared memory. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems-I. 938--950.
52. Hiroaki Kobayashi, Ken-ichi Suzuki, Kentaro Sano, Yoshiyuki Kaeriyama, Yasumasa Saida, Nobuyuki Oba, and Tadao Nakamura. 2001. 3dcgiram: An intelligent memory architecture for photo-realistic image synthesis. In ICCD 2001 (462--467).
53. Daniel Kopta, Konstantin Shkurko, Josef Spjut, Erik Brunvand, and Al Davis. 2013. An energy and bandwidth efficient ray tracing architecture. In Proceedings of the 5th High-Performance Graphics Conference. 121--128.
54. Daniel Kopta, Josef Spjut, Erik Brunvand, and Al Davis. 2010. Efficient MIMD architectures for high-performance ray tracing. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Design. 9--16.
55. Christian Lauterbach, Michael Garland, Shubhabrata Sengupta, David Luebke, and Dinesh Manocha. 2009. Fast BVH construction on GPUs. In Computer Graphics Forum. 28, 2, 375--384.
56. Won-Jong Lee, Youngsam Shin, Jaedon Lee, Jin-Woo Kim, Jae-Ho Nah, Seokyoon Jung, Shihwa Lee, Hyun-Sang Park, and Tack-Don Han. 2013a. SGRT: A mobile GPU architecture for real-time ray tracing. In Proceedings of the 5th High-Performance Graphics Conference. 109--119.
57. Won-Jong Lee, Youngsam Shin, Jaedon Lee, Jin-Woo Kim, Jae-Ho Nah, Seokyoon Jung, Shihwa Lee, Hyun-Sang Park, and Tack-Don Han. 2013b. Real-time ray tracing on future mobile computing platform. In Proceedings of the SIGGRAPH Asia Symposium on Mobile Graphics and Interactive Applications. 56.
58. Zonghui Li, Yangdong Deng, and Ming Gu. 2017. Path Compression kd-trees with multi-layer parallel construction: A case study on ray tracing. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics and Games. Article 16.
59. G. Liktor and K. Vaidyanathan. 2016. Bandwidth-efficient BVH layout for incremental hardware traversal. In Proceedings of High Performance Graphics (51--61), Eurographics Association.
60. Xingyu Liu, Yangdong Deng, Yufei Ni, and Zonghui Li. 2015. FastTree: A hardware KD-tree construction acceleration engine for real-time ray tracing. In Design, Automation 8 Test in Europe Conference 8 Exhibition (DATE’15). 1595--1598
61. J. David MacDonald and Kellogg S. Booth. 1989. Heuristics for ray tracing using space subdivision. In Graphics Interface Proceedings.152--163.
62. Jeffrey A. Mahovsky. 2005. Ray Tracing with Reduced-precision Bounding Volume Hierarchies, Ph.D. thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
63. Jeffrey Mahovsky and Brian Wyvill. 2004. Fast ray-axis aligned bounding box overlap tests with Plücker coordinates. Journal of Graphics Tools 9, 1, 35--46.
64. David McAllister, Jan Tománek, and James Bigler. 2014. Accelerating ray tracing using OptiX. GPU Technology Conference.
65. James A. McCombe. 2014. Introduction to PowerVR Ray Tracing. In Game Development Conference.
66. Microsoft. 2013. Programming Guide for Direct3D 11. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from https://msdn.microsoft.com/zh-cn/library/windows/desktop/ff476345(v=vs.85).aspx.
67. Steven Molnar, Michael Cox, David Ellsworth, and Henry Fuchs. 1994. A sorting classification of parallel rendering. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 14, 4, 23--32.
68. G. M. Morton. 1966. A computer oriented geodetic data base and a new technique in file sequencing. Technical Report, IBM Ltd. Ottawa, Canada,
69. Jae-Ho Nah, Hyuck-Joo Kwon, Dong-Seok Kim, Cheol-Ho Jeong, Jinhong Park, Tack-Don Han, Dinesh Manocha, and Woo-Chan Park. 2014. RayCore: A ray-tracing hardware architecture for mobile devices. ACM Transactions on Graphics 30, 6, 162.
70. Jae-Ho Nah, Jin-Woo Kim, Junho Park, Won-Jong Lee, Jeong-Soo Park, Seok-Yoon Jung, Woo-Chan Park, D. Manocha, and Tack-Don Han. 2015. HART: A hybrid architecture for ray tracing animated scenes. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 21, 3, 389--401.
71. Jae-Ho Nah, Jeong-Soo Park, Chanmin Park, Jin-Woo Kim, Yun-Hye Jung, Woo-Chan Park, and Tack-Don Han. 2011. T&I Engine: Traversal and intersection engine for hardware accelerated ray tracing. In ACM Transactions on Graphics 30, 6, 160.
72. Alexandre S. Nery, Nadia Nedjah, Felipe M. G. França, Lech Jozwiak, and Henk Corporaal. 2013. A reconfigurable ray-tracing multi-processor SoC with hardware replication-aware instruction set extension. Algorithms and Architectures for Parallel Processing Lecture Notes in Computer Science.
73. John Nickolls and William J. Dally. 2010. The GPU Computing Era. IEEE Micro 30 2, 56--69.
74. NVIDIA. 2008. NVIDIA Shader Library — HLSL. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://developer.download.nvidia.com/shaderlibrary/webpages/hlsl_shaders.html.
75. NVIDIA. 2016. NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://international.download.nvidia.com/geforce-com/international/pdfs/GeForce_GTX_1080_Whitepaper_FINAL.pdf.
76. NVIDIA. 2013. CUDA C Programming Guide. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://docs.nvidia.com/cuda/cuda-c-programming-guide/#abstract.
77. NVIDIA. 2014. Tegra K1: A New Era in Mobile Computing. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://www.nvidia.com/content/PDF/tegra_white_papers/Tegra-K1-whitepaper-v1.0.pdf.
78. J. Pantaleoni and D. Luebke. 2010. HLBVH: Hierarchical LBVH construction for real-time ray tracing of dynamic geometry. In Proceedings of the Conference on High-Performance Graphics. Eurographics Association. 87--95.
79. Steven G. Parker, James Bigler, Andreas Dietrich, Heiko Friedrich, Jared Hoberock, David Luebke, David McAllister, Morgan McGuire, Keith Morley, Austin Robison, and Martin Stich. 2010. OptiX: A general purpose ray tracing engine. ACM Transactions on Graphics 29, 4, 66.
80. PCI-SIG. 2002. PCI Express Base Specification. Revision 1.0. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://home.mit.bme.hu/∼feher/MSC_RA/External_Bus/pci_express_10.pdf.
81. Matt Pharr and Greg Humphreys. 2010. Physically Based Rendering: From Theory to Implementations (2nd ed.). Elsevier, New York, NY.
82. Keshav Pingali, Donald Nguyen, Milind Kulkarni, Martin Burtscher, M. Amber Hassaan, Rashid Kaleem, Tsung-Hsien Lee, Andrew Lenharth, Roman Manevich, Mario Méndez-Lojo, Dimitrios Prountzos, and Xin Sui. 2011. The tao of parallelism in algorithms. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation. 12--25.
83. Stefan Popov, Johannes Günther, Hans-Peter Seidel, and Philipp Slusallek. 2007. Stackless KD-tree traversal for high performance GPU ray tracing. In Computer Graphics Forum.
84. Timothy J. Purcell, Ian Buck, William R. Mark, and Pat Hanrahan. 2005. Ray tracing on programmable graphics hardware. In ACM Transactions on Graphics 21, 3, 703--712.
85. Karthik Ramani, Christiaan P. Gribble, and Al Davis. 2009. StreamRay: A stream filtering architecture for coherent ray tracing. In ACM Sigplan Notices 44, 3, 325--336.
86. John H. Reif, Doug Tygar, and Akitoshi Yoshida. 1994. The computability and complexity of ray tracing. In Discrete and Computational Geometry. 265--287.
87. James Reinders. 2014. Knights Corner: Your path to Knights Landing. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from https://software.intel.com/sites/default/files/managed/e9/b5/Knights-Corner-is-your-path-to-Knights-Landing.pdf.
88. Yiyi Ren, Xiang Xie, Guolin Li, and Zhihua Wang. 2017. A scan-line forest growing based hand segmentation framework with multi-priority vertex stereo matching for wearable devices. IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Online First.
89. Artur Santos, João Marcelo Teixeira, Thiago Farias, Veronica Teichrieb, and Judith Kelner. 2012. Understanding the efficiency of KD-tree ray-traversal techniques over a GPGPU architecture. International Journal of Parallel Programming 40, 3, 331--352.
90. Jörg Schmittler. 2006. SaarCOR: A hardware-architecture for realtime ray tracing. Ph.D. Thesis. Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany.
91. Jörg Schmittler, Ingo Wald, and Philipp Slusallek. 2002. SaarCOR: A hardware architecture for ray tracing. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH/EUROGRAPHICS Conference on Graphics Hardware. 27--36.
92. Jörg Schmittler, Sven Woop, Daniel Wagner, Wolfgang J. Paul, and Philipp Slusallek. 2004. Realtime ray tracing of dynamic scenes on an FPGA chip. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH/EUROGRAPHICS Conference on Graphics Hardware. 95--106.
93. Larry Seiler, Doug Carmean, Eric Sprangle, Tom Forsyth, Michael Abrash, Pradeep Dubey, Stephen Junkins, Adam Lake, Jeremy Sugerman, Robert Cavin, Roger Espasa, Ed Grochowski, Toni Juan, Pat Hanrahan. 2008. Larrabee: a many-core x86 architecture for visual computing. ACM Transactions on Graphics. 27, 3, 1--15.
94. Maxim Shevtsov, Alexei Soupikov, and Alexander Kapustin. 2007a. Raytriangle intersection algorithm for modern CPU architecture. In Proceedings of GraphiCon. 33--39.
95. Maxim Shevtsov, Alexei Soupikov, and Alexander Kapustin. 2007b. Highly parallel fast KD-tree construction for interactive ray tracing of dynamic scenes. In Computer Graphics Forum 26, 3, 395--404.
96. Youngsam Shin, Won-Jong Lee, Jaedon Lee, Shi-Hwa Lee, Soojung Ryu, and Jeongwook Kim. 2013. Energy efficient data transmission for ray tracing on mobile computing platform. In Proceedings of the SIGGRAPH Asia Symposium on Mobile Graphics and Interactive Applications. 64.
97. Ryan Smith. 2014. Imagination announces PowerVR wizard GPU family: Rogue learns ray tracing. Retrieved July 25, 2017 from http://www.anandtech.com/comments/7870/imagination-announces-powervr-wizard-gpu-family-rogue- learns-ray-tracing/382257.
98. Rys Sommefeldt. 2015. A look at the PowerVR graphics architecture: Tile-based rendering. Retrieved from http://blog.imgtec.com/powervr/a-look-at-the-powervr-graphics-architecture-tile-based-rendering.
99. Josef Spjut, Andrew Kensler, Daniel Kopta, and Erik Brunvand. 2009. TRaX: A multicore hardware architecture for real-time ray tracing. IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems. 28, 12. 1802--1815.
100. Josef Spjut, Daniel Kopta, Erik Brunvand, and Al Davis. 2012. A mobile accelerator architecture for ray tracing. In Proceedings of 3rd Workshop on SoCs, Heterogeneous Architectures and Workloads (SHAW’12).
101. Michael Steffen and Joseph Zambreno. 2009. Design and evaluation of a hardware accelerated ray tracing data structure. In TPCG.
102. Michael Steffen and Joseph Zambreno. 2010. A hardware pipeline for accelerating ray traversal algorithms on streaming processors. In The IEEE 8th Symposium on the Application Specific Processors (SASP’10). IEEE, 2010.
103. Jeremy Sugerman, Kayvon Fatahalian, Solomon Boulos, Kurt Akeley, and Pat Hanrahan. 2009. GRAMPS: A programming model for graphics pipelines. ACM Transactions on Graphics 28, 1, 4.
104. Tim Todman and Wayne Luk. 2001. Reconfigurable designs for ray tracing. In the 9th Annual IEEE Symposium on Proceeding of Field-Programmable Custom Computing Machines (FCCM’01). IEEE, 2001.
105. K. Vaidyanathan, T. Akenine-Möller, and M. Salvi. 2016. Watertight ray traversal with reduced precision. In Proceeding of High-Performance Graph.
106. Ingo Wald. 2004. Realtime ray tracing and interactive global illumination. Ph.D. Thesis. Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany.
107. Ingo Wald. 2007. On fast construction of SAH-based bounding volume hierarchies. In Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing. 33--40
108. Ingo Wald. 2012. Fast construction of SAH BVHs on the Intel many integrated core (MIC) architecture. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 18, 1, 47--57.
109. Ingo Wald, Philipp Slusallek, Carsten Benthin, and Markus Wagner. 2001. Interactive rendering with coherent ray tracing. In Computer Graphics Forum 20, 3, 153--164.
110. Ingo Wald and Vlastimil Havran. 2006. On building fast kd-trees for ray tracing, and on doing that in O(N log N). In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing. 61--69.
111. Ingo Wald, William R. Mark, Johannes Guenther, Solomon Boulos, Thiago Ize, Warren Hunt, Steven G. Parker, and Peter Shirley. 2007. State of the art in ray tracing animated scenes. In Computer Graphics Forum 28, 6, 1691--1722.
112. Ingo Wald, Sven Woop, Carsten Benthin, Greg S. Johnson, and Manfred Ernst. 2014. Embree — a kernel framework for efficient CPU ray tracing. ACM Transactions on Graphics 33, 4, 143:1--143:8.
113. Tong Wang and Yangdong Deng. 2013. Mining effective parallelism from hidden coherence for GPU based path tracing. In SIGGRAPH Asia 2013 Technical Briefs.
114. Yunbo Wang, Chunfeng Liu, and Yangdong Deng. 2014. A feasibility study of ray tracing on mobile GPUs. SIGGRAPH Asia 2014 Mobile Graphics and Interactive Applications.
115. Turner Whitted. 1980. An improved illumination model for shaded display. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics 13, 2, 14.
116. Sven Woop. 2006. DRPU: A programmable hardware architecture for real-time ray tracing of coherent dynamic scenes. Ph.D. Thesis. Computer Graphics Lab, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany.
117. Sven Woop, Erik Bruvand, and Philipp Slusallek. 2006. Estimating performance of a ray-tracing ASIC design. In Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE/EG Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing. 7--14.
118. Sven Woop, Jörg Schmittler, and Philipp Slusallek. 2005. RPU: A programmable ray processing unit for realtime ray tracing. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH. 434--444.
119. Zhefeng Wu, Fukai Zhao, and Xinguo Liu. 2011. SAH KD-tree construction on GPU. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium on High Performance Graphics. 71--78.
120. Kun Zhou, Qiming Hou, Rui Wang, and Baining Guo. 2008. Real-time KD-tree construction on graphics hardware. ACM Transactions on Graphics 27, 5, 1--11.
121. Ying Zhou, Dan Wang, Xiang Xie, Yiyi Ren, Guolin Li, Yangdong Deng, and Zhihua Wang. 2014. A fast accurate segmentation method for ordered LiDAR point cloud of large scale scenes. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 11, 11, 1981--1985.

Index Terms

• Computing methodologies

  • Artificial intelligence

    • Computer vision

      • Image and video acquisition

        • 3D imaging

  • Computer graphics

    • Animation

    • Image manipulation

    • Rendering